Red Light Therapy for Thyroid: Research on Hashimoto's Protocols

Last updated: April 2026

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Quick Answer

Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive therapy that uses red and near-infrared light to target specific areas of the body.
PBM may reduce pain. Fourteen studies showed significant pain reduction, especially for fibromyalgia and neuropathy, as reported in a 2026 systematic review Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain.
While local PBM shows promise for pain, whole-body PBM has not demonstrated benefits for exercise recovery or performance in five studies Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery.
The safety profile of PBM is good, with a low incidence of adverse events observed across multiple trials.

Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive treatment method that uses specific wavelengths of red and near-infrared light. This process involves shining light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or lasers onto localized areas of the skin. The goal is to influence cellular function, particularly by modulating mitochondrial activity. While PBM is being explored for many health conditions, its use for thyroid issues like Hashimoto's protocols is still an area of active investigation. Research indicates that PBM may offer significant pain reduction in conditions like fibromyalgia and neuropathy, with a systematic review published in 2026 including fourteen studies that showed these positive effects Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. The overall safety of PBM appears promising, as studies have reported a low incidence of adverse events. However, it's important to note that while localized PBM has shown potential for various benefits, whole-body PBM has not yet provided evidence for improved exercise recovery or performance, according to a 2025 review of five studies Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery.

What is Photobiomodulation (PBM)?

Photobiomodulation, often called PBM, is a non-invasive therapeutic method. It uses light to cause changes in the body at a cellular level. This treatment involves directing red and near-infrared light onto a specific area of the skin. The light sources can be either lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The core idea behind PBM is that these particular wavelengths of light can interact with cells, specifically by changing how mitochondria work. Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of our cells, and by modulating their activity, PBM aims to support various biological processes and promote healing.

Understanding the Mechanism of PBM

PBM's mechanism centers on mitochondrial activity modulation. When red and near-infrared light penetrates the skin, it is absorbed by chromophores within the cells. These chromophores, such as cytochrome c oxidase in the mitochondria, react to the light. This reaction can lead to a cascade of cellular events. These events may include increased ATP production, enhanced cellular metabolism, and the release of nitric oxide. These changes can then influence cell function, potentially reducing inflammation, easing pain, and supporting tissue repair. The specific wavelengths used in PBM are crucial. Red light, typically between 600-700 nanometers (nm), and near-infrared (NIR) light, typically between 780-1100 nm, are chosen for their ability to penetrate tissue effectively and stimulate cellular responses. The depth of penetration varies, with NIR light generally reaching deeper tissues than red light. This difference in penetration depth allows PBM to be applied for a range of conditions, affecting both superficial and deeper structures.

Localized Application of PBM

PBM is often applied in a localized manner. This means the light is directed precisely to the area needing treatment. For example, if someone has a specific joint pain or a localized skin condition, the light would be focused on that particular spot. This local application aims to deliver a concentrated dose of light energy to the targeted cells and tissues. Localized PBM has been extensively studied for its potential to improve exercise performance and recovery. Researchers have explored how applying light directly to muscles or other tissues before or after physical activity might aid in reducing fatigue or speeding up recovery times. While the general concept of PBM is to stimulate cellular activity, the specific parameters of treatment—such as wavelength, power density, and duration—are carefully chosen based on the condition being addressed and the area of the body being treated. The non-invasive nature of this procedure makes it an appealing option for many individuals looking for alternative or complementary therapies.

The Role of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Lasers

Both lasers and LEDs are used in PBM. Lasers typically deliver a more concentrated and coherent beam of light. This allows for precise targeting and deeper penetration into tissues. LEDs, on the other hand, produce a broader spectrum of light and cover a larger surface area. They are often used for more widespread applications or when a less intense, diffused light is preferred. The choice between lasers and LEDs depends on the specific therapeutic goal and the area being treated. Regardless of the light source, the fundamental principle remains the same: to deliver specific wavelengths of light to trigger beneficial cellular responses. The development of PBM technology has allowed for more accessible and varied applications, from clinical settings to at-home devices. The ongoing research helps refine these applications, ensuring that the most effective and safest protocols are identified for different health conditions. Understanding what PBM is and how it works provides a foundation for exploring its potential benefits, particularly in areas like chronic pain management and other health challenges.

Can PBM Help with Chronic Pain Conditions?

Photobiomodulation (PBM) shows promise as a therapeutic alternative for managing chronic pain. A systematic review published in 2026 highlighted PBM's potential in this area Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. The review examined various studies to synthesize evidence on how PBM affects pain, functional abilities, quality of life, and overall safety. The findings suggest that PBM can offer significant relief for individuals suffering from persistent pain.

Evidence for Pain Reduction

The systematic review from 2026 included fourteen studies. These studies investigated PBM across different chronic pain conditions, such as fibromyalgia, peripheral neuropathies, orofacial pain, and musculoskeletal pain Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. A significant finding from this comprehensive analysis was that most of these trials demonstrated a notable reduction in pain levels with PBM treatment. This pain reduction was particularly evident in patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia and those experiencing neuropathy. Fibromyalgia is a condition characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and other symptoms. Neuropathy involves nerve damage that can cause pain, numbness, and weakness. The consistent observation of pain relief in these diverse conditions suggests a broad applicability for PBM in chronic pain management.

One specific study, published in 2002, focused on the efficacy of low power laser therapy in fibromyalgia. This single-blind, placebo-controlled trial provided early evidence supporting the use of laser therapy for this condition Low-Level Laser Therapy for Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - PubMed. Such studies contribute to the growing body of literature that supports PBM as a viable option for individuals struggling with chronic pain. The consistent results across different trials and varying pain conditions reinforce the idea that PBM could be a valuable tool in a pain management strategy.

Improving Function and Quality of Life

Beyond just reducing pain, some studies included in the 2026 systematic review also observed other positive outcomes. These included functional gains and an improved quality of life for participants. Functional gains mean that individuals experienced better physical abilities or could perform daily tasks with greater ease. For someone living with chronic pain, being able to move more freely or engage in activities that were previously difficult can significantly impact their overall well-being. Improved quality of life encompasses a broader sense of well-being, including physical health, psychological state, and social relationships. When pain is reduced and function improves, a person's ability to participate in life, enjoy activities, and feel generally better often increases.

The systematic review summarized these benefits, noting that "Most trials demonstrated significant pain reduction with PBM, particularly in fibromyalgia and neuropathy. In some studies, functional gains and improved quality of life were observed. The incidence of adverse events was low, reinforcing the method's safety, although the heterogeneity of technical parameters compromises the standardization of results," said Luciano Maia Alves Ferreira et al., Front Integr Neurosci. 2026. This quote highlights the multifaceted benefits of PBM, extending beyond mere symptom relief to encompass improvements in how people live their lives. The combination of pain reduction, functional improvement, and enhanced quality of life makes PBM an attractive option for comprehensive chronic pain management.

Safety and Standardization Considerations

The safety profile of PBM for chronic pain appears favorable. The 2026 systematic review noted a low incidence of adverse events across the included studies Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. This low rate of side effects is a crucial factor, especially when considering long-term treatments for chronic conditions. The reinforcement of the method's safety is important for both practitioners and patients. However, the review also pointed out a challenge: the heterogeneity of technical parameters used in different studies. This means that the specific settings for PBM treatment—such as the type of light (laser or LED), wavelength, power, duration, and frequency of sessions—varied significantly from one trial to another. This variability makes it difficult to standardize results and establish definitive, universally applicable treatment protocols.

Despite the positive findings, this lack of standardization means that more research is needed to determine the optimal PBM protocols for specific chronic pain conditions. Future studies would benefit from more consistent reporting of technical parameters to allow for better comparison and replication of results. This would help in developing clearer guidelines for clinical use. Even with these challenges, the overall evidence suggests that PBM is a promising and generally safe option for many individuals experiencing chronic pain. Its ability to reduce pain, improve function, and enhance quality of life, coupled with a good safety record, positions it as a valuable tool in the ongoing effort to manage chronic pain effectively.

Is PBM Safe for Thyroid Conditions?

When considering any new therapy, especially for sensitive areas like the thyroid, safety is a primary concern. Photobiomodulation (PBM) has generally shown a good safety profile across various studies. The incidence of adverse events linked to PBM has been consistently low, reinforcing the method's safety for a range of applications.

Low Incidence of Adverse Events

Across multiple studies evaluating PBM for different conditions, researchers have frequently reported a low incidence of adverse events. This means that participants undergoing PBM treatments rarely experience negative side effects. The 2026 systematic review on PBM in chronic pain, which included fourteen studies, explicitly stated that "The incidence of adverse events was low, reinforcing the method's safety" Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. This finding is critical because it suggests that PBM is well-tolerated by most individuals. For a therapy to be widely adopted and considered viable, especially for chronic conditions that might require ongoing treatment, a strong safety record is essential. The non-invasive nature of PBM, which involves light exposure rather than drugs or surgical procedures, likely contributes to its favorable safety profile.

This consistent observation of low adverse events is a significant benefit. It provides reassurance for individuals exploring PBM as a treatment option and for healthcare providers considering incorporating it into their practice. The focus on safety is paramount, particularly when discussing applications for specific organs like the thyroid, which plays a vital role in overall health. While general safety is positive, specific research directly addressing PBM's safety for thyroid conditions, like Hashimoto's, would provide even more targeted information. However, the broader evidence of low adverse events in PBM studies is a good starting point for understanding its potential safety.

Reinforcing Method's Safety

The repeated observation of a low incidence of adverse events in PBM studies strongly reinforces the overall safety of the method. This pattern is not limited to a single study but is seen across diverse research, covering different patient populations and various conditions. For example, a systematic review and meta-analysis on low-level laser therapy for fibromyalgia also supports this, noting that such therapies are generally considered safe Low-Level Laser Therapy for Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - PubMed. This cumulative evidence helps build confidence in PBM as a therapeutic tool. When a treatment method consistently demonstrates minimal risks, it becomes a more attractive option for patients and clinicians alike. The absence of severe or frequent side effects is a hallmark of a safe intervention.

This robust safety profile is particularly important for therapies that might be applied near vital organs. Although the provided research doesn't specifically detail PBM safety for the thyroid, the general safety data is encouraging. It suggests that PBM, when applied correctly, is unlikely to cause significant harm. The mechanism of PBM, which involves stimulating natural cellular processes rather than introducing foreign substances, also aligns with a generally safe approach to therapy. This inherent characteristic of light-based therapy contributes to its reputation for minimal risk.

Challenges with Standardization of Results

Despite the positive safety profile, a challenge exists regarding the standardization of PBM results. The 2026 systematic review noted that "the heterogeneity of technical parameters compromises the standardization of results" Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. This means that different studies often use different light wavelengths, power outputs, treatment durations, session frequencies, and device types. Such variations make it difficult to compare results directly across studies or to establish a single, universally effective protocol. For instance, one study might use a laser at 810 nm for 10 minutes, while another might use LEDs at 660 nm for 5 minutes. Both might report positive outcomes, but understanding which parameters are most effective for a particular condition becomes complex.

This lack of standardization can create uncertainty when trying to determine the optimal PBM protocol for specific conditions, including those potentially involving the thyroid. While the method is generally safe, ensuring maximum efficacy requires precise parameters. Future research needs to focus on identifying and standardizing these technical parameters to optimize treatment outcomes. This would allow for more consistent application of PBM in clinical settings and help to clarify its specific benefits and risks for conditions like Hashimoto's. Until then, while the safety of PBM in general is well-supported, specific recommendations for thyroid conditions would benefit from more targeted and standardized research.

What About Whole-Body PBM for Performance and Recovery?

Whole-body photobiomodulation (PBM) is a method that exposes the entire body to red and near-infrared light. This approach has been investigated for its potential to improve exercise performance and aid in recovery after physical activity. However, the research on whole-body PBM for these specific outcomes presents a different picture compared to localized PBM.

Review of Whole-Body PBM Studies

A systematic review published in 2025 specifically evaluated the efficacy of whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery. The researchers conducted a thorough search across multiple databases to identify relevant studies. They focused on human participants who received whole-body PBM in the red or near-infrared spectrum either before or after exercise, with the aim of enhancing performance or recovery.

From their extensive search, a total of five studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria. These five studies collectively included 105 physically active participants. The participant group represented both sexes and engaged in various types of exercise. This review aimed to provide a qualitative synthesis of the findings from these studies, comparing them with the established effects of localized PBM. The limited number of studies and participants highlights that whole-body PBM for these specific applications is still a developing area of research.

Impact on Sleep Quality

Interestingly, while whole-body PBM did not show benefits for exercise performance or recovery biomarkers, two of the five identified studies reported an improvement in sleep quality. This improvement was determined through a combination of subjective questionnaires, where participants reported their sleep experiences, and objective measurements from commercial sleep trackers. The findings from these two studies also indicated other positive changes related to sleep: participants using whole-body PBM showed higher serum melatonin levels and lower nocturnal heart rates. Melatonin is a hormone crucial for regulating sleep-wake cycles, and a lower nocturnal heart rate can be an indicator of deeper, more restorative sleep.

This suggests that whole-body PBM might have an effect on the body's circadian rhythm and autonomic nervous system, promoting a state conducive to better sleep. The review concluded that "Whole-body PBM may improve sleep quality but shows no evidence of benefits for exercise recovery or performance. Further research is necessary to resolve discrepancies with the benefits observed in localized PBM studies," as stated by Mario Álvarez-Martínez et al., Lasers Med Sci. 2025. This specific finding regarding sleep quality points to a potential area where whole-body PBM could offer benefits, even if its direct impact on athletic performance and recovery biomarkers is not yet supported by the available evidence. It opens up avenues for future research to explore PBM's role in sleep health.

Lack of Benefit for Exercise Performance and Fatigue

Despite the potential for improved sleep, the systematic review from 2025 found no evidence that whole-body PBM benefited exercise performance or biomarkers of fatigue Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery. This was a consistent finding across all five studies included in the review. Biomarkers of fatigue are measurable physiological indicators that reflect the body's response to physical exertion and its ability to recover. Examples might include markers of muscle damage, inflammation, or metabolic stress. The absence of reported benefits in these areas for whole-body PBM is a key takeaway.

This contrasts with some findings related to localized PBM, where specific applications to muscles or other tissues have shown potential to improve certain aspects of performance or recovery. The lack of effect from whole-body PBM on these parameters suggests that simply exposing the entire body to light may not be sufficient or appropriately targeted to elicit the same benefits seen with more focused, localized treatments. It highlights the importance of understanding the specific application methods and their distinct outcomes. More research is needed to determine why whole-body PBM did not show these benefits and if different protocols or populations might yield different results. For now, based on the available evidence, individuals seeking to enhance exercise performance or reduce fatigue through PBM might find more support for localized applications rather than whole-body treatments.

How Does Localized PBM Compare to Whole-Body PBM?

The application of photobiomodulation (PBM) can be either localized or whole-body, and research suggests these different approaches yield distinct outcomes, especially concerning exercise performance and recovery. Localized PBM targets specific areas, while whole-body PBM exposes the entire body to light. Understanding these differences is crucial for effective application.

Localized PBM for Performance and Recovery

Localized PBM involves directing red and near-infrared light to a specific area of the body, such as a muscle group, joint, or an injured site. This method has been studied as a way to potentially improve exercise performance and aid in recovery. The idea is that by focusing the light on the tissues most affected by exercise, PBM can stimulate cellular processes in those specific areas. For example, applying PBM directly to a muscle before or after a workout might help reduce muscle fatigue, decrease soreness, or speed up the repair of muscle tissue. Many studies have explored these localized applications, showing promising results in various contexts. The targeted nature of localized PBM allows for higher energy delivery to specific tissues, which researchers believe is key to its effects. This focused approach is often contrasted with the more diffuse energy delivery of whole-body PBM.

The benefits observed in localized PBM studies often relate to direct cellular responses in the treated area. These responses include enhanced mitochondrial activity, increased ATP production, and improved blood flow, all of which can contribute to better muscle function and faster recovery. The evidence base for localized PBM in these areas is more robust, leading to its more widespread use and recommendation for specific applications in sports and physical therapy. The precision of localized treatment means that the light energy is concentrated where it is most needed, potentially leading to more pronounced and measurable effects on performance and recovery markers. This distinction is vital when considering the overall efficacy of PBM interventions.

Discrepancies in Observed Benefits

When we compare the findings for localized PBM with those for whole-body PBM, a clear discrepancy emerges, particularly concerning exercise outcomes. The 2025 systematic review on whole-body PBM explicitly noted that "Further research is necessary to resolve discrepancies with the benefits observed in localized PBM studies" Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery. While localized PBM has shown potential for improving exercise performance and recovery, whole-body PBM, as reviewed in five studies with 105 participants, did not demonstrate benefits for biomarkers of fatigue or exercise performance. This difference suggests that the way PBM is applied—whether locally or across the entire body—might significantly influence its effectiveness for certain physiological responses.

One possible explanation for this discrepancy could be the dosage and targeting of the light energy. In localized PBM, the light is concentrated on a smaller area, potentially delivering a more effective dose to the specific cells and tissues involved in exercise performance and recovery. In contrast, whole-body PBM distributes the same amount of light energy over a much larger surface area, which might dilute its effects on individual muscle groups or cells to the point where no significant benefit for performance or fatigue is observed. Another factor could be the specific mechanisms at play. Localized PBM might trigger immediate, direct cellular responses in the treated area, whereas the systemic effects of whole-body PBM might be different or less pronounced for acute exercise-related outcomes.

Need for Further Research

The inconsistencies between localized and whole-body PBM findings underscore the need for more targeted research. To resolve these discrepancies, future studies should aim to compare localized and whole-body PBM directly using standardized protocols. This would involve carefully controlling variables such as light parameters, treatment duration, and participant characteristics. Researchers also need to investigate the underlying physiological reasons for these differences. For instance, is it a matter of energy density, wavelength penetration, or the specific cellular pathways activated by each approach?

Understanding these nuances will help refine PBM protocols and guide practitioners in recommending the most appropriate application method for specific goals. If whole-body PBM is to show benefits for exercise performance and recovery, it might require different parameters or a clearer understanding of its unique systemic effects compared to the localized approach. Until then, individuals and practitioners should be aware of these current research limitations. The ongoing exploration of PBM, both localized and whole-body, is essential to fully unlock its potential and to ensure that it is applied effectively and safely for a wide range of health and performance objectives. This continued research will help clarify where each method excels and how they can best be integrated into health and wellness strategies.

Has PBM Been Studied for Other Conditions?

Yes, photobiomodulation (PBM) has been studied for a variety of health conditions beyond chronic pain and exercise recovery. Its ability to modulate mitochondrial activity makes it a versatile therapeutic approach, leading researchers to explore its potential in diverse medical fields. One notable area of investigation is age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

PBM for Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of vision loss, particularly in older adults. PBM has emerged as a controversial but promising approach for managing dry AMD, which is the more common form of the condition. The underlying principle is that PBM aims to halt or even reverse the progression of AMD by modulating mitochondrial activity within the cells of the retina. The retina, especially the macula, is rich in mitochondria, and improving their function could potentially protect photoreceptor cells and reduce cellular stress associated with AMD.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials on PBM for age-related macular degeneration was published in 2024 Photobiomodulation efficacy in age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials - PubMed. This review sought to evaluate the efficacy and clinical relevance of PBM as a potential management approach for dry AMD. The researchers systematically searched major medical databases to gather evidence from trials comparing PBM to a sham treatment in patients with dry AMD. The goal was to assess both statistical and clinical significance, using methods like trial sequential analysis (TSA) and minimal clinically important difference (MCID) calculations.

Debates on Efficacy and Clinical Relevance

Despite the promise, the efficacy and clinical relevance of PBM as a potential approach for managing dry AMD remain debated. The 2024 systematic review acknowledged this controversy, indicating that while PBM offers a potential pathway through mitochondrial modulation, its definitive role in clinical practice is still under discussion Photobiomodulation efficacy in age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials - PubMed. This debate stems from several factors, including the varying results across studies, the different PBM protocols used, and the challenges in demonstrating a clear, consistent clinical benefit that significantly impacts patients' vision.

For a therapy to be widely accepted, it needs to show not only statistical significance (meaning the observed effect is unlikely due to chance) but also clinical significance (meaning the effect is large enough to be meaningful to patients). The ongoing discussions around PBM for AMD suggest that while some studies might show positive trends, a consensus on its widespread effectiveness and the optimal treatment parameters has not yet been reached. This situation is similar to the challenges faced in standardizing PBM protocols for chronic pain, where heterogeneity in technical parameters can complicate the interpretation of results. Further rigorous research, with standardized protocols and larger patient cohorts, will be necessary to definitively establish PBM's place in AMD management.

PBM for Other Neurological and Inflammatory Conditions

Beyond AMD, PBM is also being explored for a range of other conditions, including various neurological and inflammatory disorders. Its ability to influence cellular metabolism, reduce inflammation, and promote tissue repair makes it a candidate for conditions such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, and even some neurodegenerative diseases. The anti-inflammatory effects of PBM are particularly relevant in conditions where chronic inflammation plays a significant role in disease progression. For instance, in a systematic review on PBM and chronic pain, conditions like peripheral neuropathies and orofacial pain were included, where inflammation often contributes to the pain experience Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain.

The versatility of PBM stems from its fundamental mechanism of action at the cellular level. By enhancing mitochondrial function, PBM can potentially improve cellular resilience and repair capabilities across different tissue types and organ systems. This broad applicability means that researchers continue to investigate PBM for an expanding list of health challenges. While the focus of this article is on thyroid conditions and Hashimoto's protocols, understanding the wider scope of PBM research helps to contextualize its potential. The ongoing studies across different medical fields contribute to our overall understanding of PBM's capabilities, limitations, and optimal applications. This continuous exploration is vital for moving PBM from a promising experimental therapy to a widely recognized and effective treatment option.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the main difference between local and whole-body PBM?

The main difference lies in the area of application. Local PBM targets specific body parts, like a muscle or joint, with concentrated red and near-infrared light. Whole-body PBM exposes the entire body to these light wavelengths. While localized PBM has shown promise for specific benefits like improving exercise performance and recovery in some studies, whole-body PBM has not demonstrated such benefits for exercise outcomes in five studies reviewed in 2025 Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery.

Can PBM help with fibromyalgia pain?

Yes, PBM has shown promise in helping with fibromyalgia pain. A systematic review published in 2026, which included fourteen studies, found that most trials demonstrated significant pain reduction with PBM, particularly in fibromyalgia and neuropathy Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. Some studies also observed functional gains and improved quality of life for individuals with fibromyalgia.

Is red light therapy safe for general use?

Red light therapy, or PBM, generally has a good safety profile. Studies have consistently reported a low incidence of adverse events, reinforcing the method's safety. For instance, the 2026 systematic review on PBM for chronic pain specifically noted the low incidence of adverse events across fourteen included studies Systematic review on PBM for chronic pain. However, the effectiveness can vary due to different technical parameters used in various protocols.

Does whole-body PBM improve athletic performance?

Based on current research, whole-body PBM does not show evidence of benefits for exercise recovery or performance. A systematic review from 2025, which analyzed five studies with 105 physically active participants, found no reported benefits of whole-body PBM on biomarkers of fatigue and exercise performance Whole-body PBM for exercise performance and recovery. However, two of those five studies did report better sleep quality with whole-body PBM.

What kind of light does PBM use?

Photobiomodulation (PBM) uses red and near-infrared light. These specific wavelengths are chosen because they can penetrate the skin and interact with cells, particularly by modulating mitochondrial activity. The light is delivered using either lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs), depending on the specific therapeutic goals and the area of the body being treated.